The Sack of Rome (August 24th)

In the fifth century AD, Rome was in quite a bit of trouble. Barbarian tribes around the Roman Empire were starting to get stronger. The Huns attacked from the East, and the Visigoths attacked from the North. Eventually, Roman Emperor, Theodosius I, had to sign a treaty with the Visigoths. The Visigoths all became Roman citizens and fought as part of the Roman army. Alaric I, the King of the Visigoths, rode along with Theodosius, riding into battle against the Goths and the Huns, but all this changed when Theodosius died.

After Theodosius died, the peace between the Romans and the Visigoths quickly disintegrated, leading to the the top general, Flavius Stilicho, chasing the Visigoths out of Italy. When Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius died, Honorius, the Western Emperor, decided to go to Rome. Stilicho forbade his leaving Rome and suggested that he go instead. Rumors spread that Stilicho wanted to put his own son on the throne. Olympius, a Roman politician, staged a mutiny within the army and convinced Honorius that Stilicho was a threat.

Stilicho was soon executed, and the Roman Army was soon in chaos.Much violence broke out against the slaves and barbarian soldiers residing in Italy. Many of the persecuted people fled from Italy and sided with Alaric. Alaric's army grew by several thousand, and he was soon able to attack Rome.

In 408, the Visigoths attacked the great city of Rome, and starvation and diseases rapidly spread through the city. Alaric was given 5,000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver along with silk and pepper in order to stop the siege.

Encouraged by Pope Innocent I, Honorius decided to make an alliance with the Visigoths. When Alaric demanded the title of Magister Militium, Honorius refused and sent Alaric an insulting letter. When Alaric intercepted a force of soldiers being secretly brought into Rome, he was furious and laid siege to Rome once more.When starvation returned, the Roman Senate surrendered again, and Alaric pressured them to appoint a new military leader.

When a treaty was almost reached between Honorius and Alaric, a Gothic commander allied with Honorius attacked Alaric. Alaric defeated the Gothic raiders and traveled to Rome, laying siege to the city for a third time. On August 24, 410, slavesopened Romes gate and Visigoths looted the city for three days.

This was the first time Rome had been sacked in 800 years, and it showed Rome's growing weakness and vulnerability. The eternal city was falling. In less than seventy years from the sacking of Rome, the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus, would be dethroned.

The Coronation of Hadrian (August 8th)

Emperor Hadrian

In the year AD 117, the Emperor Trajan was in Selinus, or modern day Turkey. During the past nineteen years, Trajan had conquered the regions of Parthia and Dacia and had started building programs in both Italy and Spain. Trajan is most famous, though, for his tolerance of Christians. This fact earned him a place in Dante's Paradiso as the only pre-Christian Roman emperor. While in Turkey, Trajan had a stroke and died at the age of 63.

On August 8th, 117, Hadrian, Trajan's adoptive son, inherited the throne. Hadrian's method of ruling was to improve rather than invade. Hadrian is responsible for many of the most recognizable buildings in all of the Roman Empire.

Among his works is the Pantheon in Rome. Though it was constructed more than a century earlier, Hadrian had the Pantheon renovated, adding the 141 foot diameter dome to the structure. Hadrian also constructed the Castel' Sant'Angelo and a villa at Tivoli, both of which still stand today.

Hadrian is most famous for his wall, which began construction in AD 122. In the north of Britain, the Picts and the Scots continuously raided cities in the Roman-controlled region of the island. To halt these raids, Hadrian began the construction of a wall, known as Hadrian's wall. This wall was ten feet wide, fifteen feet high, and stretch 73 miles from one coast of Britain to the next.. The wall also had a fort every five miles. Hadrian's Wall remains the larges construction project in Great Britain and it was the first barrier to set a distinct line between what would become England and Scotland. Hadrian continued building until his death in AD 138, at the age of 62.

Diocletian (#89)

Background

Diocles was born in Dalmatia around the year 244. Diocles came from a family of low status. Little is known about the first forty years of Diocletian's life, though many suspect he held a military rank of some sort. In January of 284, the brothers Numerian and Carinus took control over the Roman Empire from their father. Unfortunately, Numerian died later in that year. Numerian, at the time of his death, was coming back from combat in Persia. When he died, his army voted on who should be succeed him as Emperor, and Diocles was chosen. After being chosen as Emperor, Diocles changed his name to Diocletianus, making his full name Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus. Toady, we know him as Diocletian.

Gaining Power

After Numerian's army had named Diocletian as emperor, Carinus was not to happy. To Carinus, Diocletian was a usurper opposing Carinus's rule, so Carinus decided to meet Diocletian in battle. Although Carinus had a stronger army and he had control over the Roman Senate, he was unpopular. Carinus and Numerian were the sons of the unpopular Emperor Carus, and neither the sons nor the father were too popular with the people. Diocletian and Carinus met in battle at the Battle of Margus, during which most of Carinus's generals defected to Diocletian. When Diocletian won the battle, both the western and eastern armies accepted Diocletian as the Augustus, or ruler.

Dividing Power

When Diocletian came to power, Rome was filled with problems. In the East, Rome was on the brink of war with Persia and the west faced constant threat from barbarian tribes. On top of that, the entire empire seemed to be on the brink of revolt. Diocletian decided that the job of Emperor was too big for one person, so Diocletian named Maximian as co-ruler of the Roman Empire in 285. Diocletian decided to rule over the East, because that part of the Empire was the more stable of the two. Maximian was assigned the Western Roman Empire. It was this division that divided the empire in two and allowed the Byzantine Empire to survive when the Western Roman Empire fell. Unfortunately, even though the empire divided, Rome's situation worsened.  Persia had declared war on the Roman Empire and the ex-general Carausius had proclaimed himself Augustus and spurred Britain and Northern Gaul into open revolt. Though both Diocletian and Maximian had begun to retake Gaul and were winning the war in Persia, they needed more hands to deal with conflicts, so Maximian took Flavius Constantius as his second in command in 293, and Diocletian did the same with Galerius. Though Constantius and Galerius were below Diocletian and Maximian, all four had their own independent army and were pretty much independent from one another.  

Later Rule

The Tetrarchy with Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius, and Galerius added great benefit to the Empire. While Galerius was fighting battles in Persia, Diocletian was quelling revolts in the Balkans. Though this organization made the job of Diocletian easier, it also gave him time to persecute Christians. Diocletian and Galerius created a lot of persecutionary edicts towards Christians along with killing several of the Christian clergy and razing several Christian churches. Diocletian also issued an arrest for all Christian clergy. The persecutions, luckily, were for the most part unsuccessful. Most Christians escaped punishment, and people of other religions were mainly unsympathetic to the persecution. Also, Maximian and COnstantius did not apply most of the persecutionary edicts, leaving Western Christians unharmed. In 311, Galerius repealed the edicts, stating that they had failed to bring Christians back to traditional religion.

The End

In 304, Diocletian had just finished dedicating the opening of a circus when he collapsed. Diocletian's health was deteriorating, so on May 1, 305, Diocletion brought his generals, officers, and representatives to the hill, five kilometers out of Nicomedia, where he was appointed as Emperor after the death of Numerian. On that hill, he announced that he would be abdicating from his role as Augustus. Diocletian retired to Dalmatia where he created a palace for himself. After Maximian retired, Diocletian watched the political situation turn to chaos. The Tetrarchy collapsed and Maximian was forced to commit suicide after his third attempt to reclaim the throne. Diocletian died on December 3, 311, soon after Maximian. Diocletian made our list because he made the division in the Roman Empire that probably saved it for several hundred years and kept the Byzantine Empire alive after the fall of Rome in the West.

Giuseppe Fiorelli (#100)

Background 

Giuseppe Fiorelli was born in Naples, Italy in 1823, though not much is known about his childhood.

Finding Pompeii

In the article on Pliny the Elder, Pliny died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, a mountain along the Bay of Naples. In the eruption, the city of Pompeii was buried along with many of its people. Parts of Pompeii and its neighboring city, Herculaneum were discovered at various points in time. A few frescoes were discovered in 1599, when an underground channel was being dug. In 1738, Herculaneum was discovered while workers were building the King of Naples's summer palace. Karl Weber directed the first real excavations in 1764, but the full excavation did not start until 1860, when Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge. In 1860, King Victor Emmanuel II of Naples came to power and appointed Giuseppe Fiorelli as the head of the excavations in Pompeii. Fiorelli also became a professor of archaeology at Naples University. 

New Methods

As the director of excavations, Fiorelli introduced new excavation techniques. First, he made the excavation site study the site layer by layer. Though this took a long time, much more was could be learned the site. He also created a training school where students could learn how to study particular materials and building techniques used in Pompeii. Fiorelli's most famous excavation technique was that of pouring plaster into cavities left by bodies in the hardened lava and volcanic ash. This process, now known as the Fiorelli process, allowed the archaeologists to recreate the position and look of the body at the time of death. Fiorelli also pushed for the restoration of Pompeii's buildings, though most of the artwork was brought to Naples.

The End

Fiorelli directed the excavation of Pompeii from 1860 to 1875.  Fiorelli was appointed the director of the Naples National Archaeological Museum in 1863, and in 1875, he was appointed as the director general of Italian Antiquities and Fine Arts.  Fiorelli died on January 28th, 1896, though the cause of death is unknown. Pompeii remains one of the most famous archaeological sites of all time, and although little is known about his life, Fiorelli makes our list because the methods of archaeology that he used on Pompeii became the basis of modern archaeology. Though plastering body cavities is not used often, it was a creative and useful way to study the bodies. Also, Fiorelli's layer-by-layer method of archaeology and his study of building methods and materials are still used today. The excavation of Pompeii is now widely accepted as the first modern archaeological dig.

Saint Cyril and Methodius (#109 & #108)

Background

Constantine and Methodius were two Byzantine brothers born in the city of Thessaloniki. Methodius was born between AD 815 and 820, and Constantine was born between AD 827 and 828. Constantine is better known as Cyril, the name he took shortly before his death. After losing their father when Cyril was fourteen, the minister Theoktistos became their guardian. Theoktistos taught the two brothers and even gave Cyril a job at the University of Magnaura.

Cyril

Cyril, in his education, mastered theology and could speak both Arabic and Hebrew. His knowledge helped him to acquire a mission to the Middle East from the Byzantine Empire. cyril was sent to the Abbasid Caliphate under Caliph Al-Mutawakkil. Cyril was sent to discuss the idea of the Holy Trinity with theologians there and improve Abbasid-Byzantine relations. Cyril played a major role in easing tension between Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Cyril also worked in the Khazar Khaganate, in which people of all religions could live in peace.

Cyril and Methodius. 

In 862, Prince Rastislav of Great Moravia asked Emperor Michael III and Patriarch Photius to send missionaries to Great Moravia. Cyril and Methodius were chosen for the mission with the goal of spreading Christianity and Byzantine influence. When Cyril and Methodius arrived, they began to create a written Slavic alphabet, known as the Glagolitic alphabet. This alphabet was the first alphabet used for Slavonic manuscripts, and has become today's Cyrillic alphabet, which is used in Eastern Europe. After developing the alphabt, the brothers were able to quickly translate the New Testament and the Psalms, followed by the Old Testament. In 867, the brothers went to Rome at the request of Pope Nicholas I. There was a dispute over whether the brothers or Theotmar, the Archbishop of Salzburg, had ecclesiastical control of Great Moravia. the dispute was settled when the brothers won the favor of Pope Adrian II. Unfortunately, Cyril died fifty days after this decision on February 14, 869. 

Methodius

Methodius continued to work with Slavs, though now in the Balaton Principality. Methodius was allowed to work in Great Moravia and the Balaton Principality because he had been named as the archbishop of Sirmium by Pope Adrian II. Later, under Pope John VIII, Methodius was given jurisdiction over Serbia as well. Many people, including King Louis the German, were angered by the archiepiscopal claims of Methodius, and Louis had Methodius imprisoned for two and a half years in Germany. Rome, though, sided with Methodius, and sent an ambassador to reinstate Methodius. Methodius remained archbishop until his death on Abril 8, 885.

The End

Saint Cyril and Methodius are in our list for several reasons. the two were able to be on friendly terms with both the Pope in Rome and the Patriarch in Constantinople. The two were also responsible for the creation of the Cyrillic alphabet, which millions of people use today. These two brothers were involved in the political, religious, and intellectual wolds at their time and that deserves some recognition.

Ptolemy (#110)

Background

Claudius Ptolemy was a Roman citizen born around the year AD 90, and he lived in Egypt under Roman rule. Ethnically, Ptolemy was Greek, and all of Ptolemy's works were written in Ancient Greek.

Life and Work

One of Ptolemy's most important surviving works is the Almagest, which is the only surviving comprehensive ancient document on astronomy. Using Babylonian astronomical data and Greek mathematics, Ptolemy created tables to predict the positions of planets in the future and the past. Also, Ptolemy created a star catalog, including forty-eight constellations. One of the key problems in Ptolemy's work was the idea of a geocentric universe, where everything revolved around the Earth. He explained the back-and-forth movement of planets by stating that the planets had sub-orbits within their larger orbit around the Earth. Because it was one of the few astronomical documents to survive into the Middle Ages, it was considered the law on astronomy during that time, and his geocentric ideas were not disproved until Nicolaus Copernicus wrote De revolutionibus in 1543. Ptolemy also wrote Planetary Hypotheses, which used his planetary model to compute the dimensions of the Solar System. Ptolemy also wrote Geographia, a work which mapped out the known world. His maps goes from Cape Verdes in the West to the middle of china in the East, and is fairly accurate considering the time this map was made. Ptolemy knew that his map only covered a quarter of the globe, but his map was still used widely up through the Middle ages. Ptolemy also wrote on astrology, where he predicted the future of people while also taking into account differences in race, country, and upbringing. Ptolemy is also remembered through his works Harmonics, where he argued that musical intervals should be based on mathematical ratios, and Optics, in which Ptolemy wrote on the properties of light, reflection, refraction, and color.

The End

Ptolemy died around the year AD 168. Ptolemy is listed on this list before Copernicus because not only did he work in more fields, but also because Ptolemy's works helped for the scientific basis for Europe in the Middle Ages, where they turned into a legend, calling him Ptolemy, King of Alexandria. Copernicus wasn't called the King of  Krakow. Also, Ptolemy has two craters (one on the Moon and one on Mars) named after him.

Pliny the Elder (#112)

Beginnings

Gaius Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the Elder, was born in the year 23A.D. He was the son of an equestrian born in Como. He came from the Plinii family, but made his own family name, Secundus.

Life

Pliny entered the army in 46 A.D. at the age of 23. Pliny, during his army work, helped to defeat the Germanic Chauci tribe, and helped construct the canal between the Maas and the Rhine. While in the army, Pliny began studying missile use on horseback.  By 56 A.D., Pliny's service was up, but did not leave the army.  Pliny lived in Rome soon after the Great Fire, and remembers the building of Nero's great palace. Pliny did not personally know Nero, but in his later career as a soldier, Pliny took orders from emperor Vespasian and rode in the army with future emperor Titus. Pliny continued to study nature, observing a solar eclipse in Campania in 59 A.D. As a senior officer in the army in 69 A.D., Pliny was sent to Africa, where he spent time studying poisonous frogs. While working in Hispania from 70-72 A.D., Pliny learned agricultural techniques and studied gold mining methods. Pliny used this information for his books, which he began to write in 69 A.D., the year that Nero's oppressive reign ended. Pliny was wrote about many different topics, creating works that are closer to encyclopedias than to anything else. Though Pliny wrote on history and conspiracy, his most famous works are those on natural history. Pliny's last book is called Naturalis Historia, which is an encyclopedia of the knowledge Pliny gained over his life. The book covers the subjects of botany, zoology, astronomy, geology, mineralogy, and technology. Much of what Pliny wrote about has been confirmed through archaeological finds, and the book remains one of the most important surviving written works of the Roman Empire.

The End

Much of what we know about Pliny the Elder was recorded by his nephew, Pliny the Younger. Among these facts is an account of Pliny the Elder's death. Pliny, in August of 79 A.D., was stationed in Misenum, across the Bay of Naples from Mount Vesuvius, which loomed over Pompeii and Herculaneum. When Vesuvius erupted, Pliny was preparing to observe the volcano more closely when he received word from a friend asking for rescue from Herculaneum. As Pliny's galley's reached Herculaneum, pumice and cinders began to fall. On the beach of Herculaneum, Pliny's men helped to save quite a few people, though in the process, Pliny became weak and couldn't walk without help. Eventually, Pliny died. Most believe that Pliny died due to the combination of toxic volcanic gases and the asthma that Pliny suffered from. Pliny is on our list because not only was he alive for the reign of several of the most famous empires and witnessed the eruption of Pompeii, but because Pliny the Elder was a brilliant naturalist, scientist, and writer, gaining fame not only in his time period, but in our time period as well.

Romulus Augustus (#113)

Early Life and Rise to Power

Romulus Augustus was born in the Roman Empire around the year 460 A.D. He was the son of Orestes, who served as a diplomat for Attila the Hun and later as a leader in the Western Roman Army. In 475, Orestes was appointed the Magister militum by current Emperor, Julius Nepos. This basically meant that Orestes controlled the army. In August of that year, Orestes started a rebellion, overthrowing Nepos and placing Romulus on the throne on October 31st, 475. Augustus now ruled the Western Roman Empire, but during his time, that wasn't saying much. The Western Empire had shrunken significantly since the Pax Romana, and imperial authority only had influence over Italy and parts of Southern Gaul. The Eastern Roman Empire, who had previously appointed Nepos to the throne, did not even recognize Romulus Augustus as ruler. 

Life as Emperor and the Fall from Power

Though Augustus was emperor and coins were minted with his face and name, the real power still belonged to Romulus's father, Orestes. Orestes soon ran into trouble with barbarians, though. As Roman power had fallen, Western Rome had begun to hire barbarians as mercenaries rather instead of training Romans. When Orestes took power, several tribes serving as mercenaries demanded a third of the land in Italy from Orestes. When Orestes refused, the Heruli, Scirian, and Turcilingi mercenaries revolted under the chieftain Odoacer. Orestes was captured in August of 476 near Piacenza, where he was executed. Odoacer then attacked Ravenna, which was the current capitol of the Western Empire. In September 4th, 476, the city was captured and Romulus was captured. This is widely accepted as the ended of the Western Roman Empire, and is sometimes even accepted as the end of the entire Roman Empire (The Eastern Empire became known as the Byzantine Empire). 

The End

After his abdication, Romulus Augustus all but disappeared. Odoacer became the ruler of Italy until Byzantine Emperor Justinian I reconquered it in the 540s. Until then, the remnants of Western Rome were under Germanic rule. That ends the story, and Augustus disappears. Most sources agree that he survived and lived in the castle of Lucullan Villa in Campania. The castle was, however, converted into a monastery by the year 500, so most historians suspect that he died around the that time. Augustus makes that list not because he did anything, but because he did nothing and stuff happened around him. He was put in the throne by his father. He was thrown out of the throne by Odoacer. He didn't initiate the historical events, but he found himself caught in the middle of it all. He watched the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Turkey's Hagia Sophia

The Holy Place of the Roman Empire

In Istanbul lies one of the greatest churches to ever be built. Hagia Sophia, or 'The Church of Holy Wisdom' was first built by Emperor Constantine, the first Christian Emperor of Rome. Unfortunately, the church was destroyed and had to be rebuilt by Constantine's son, Constantius II, but was, again, destroyed. Emperor Justinian I resolved to build the church again, but to such a scale that nobody would ever want to destroy it again. Starting in 532, the project took 10,000 men to build and a legion of priests to continually pray over the construction sight. Hagia Sophia's dome, measuring 182 feet high and 100 feet across, was the one largest of its time, second to only the Pantheon, in Rome. Justinian succeeded in making it so great that it would never be destroyed, for when the Ottomans invaded in 1453, they were so amazed that they turned it into a mosque by adding a few minarets (Towers built next to mosques). The Ottomans helped to preserve many of the original Roman artistry on the walls of the building when they plastered over them. Because of this preservation, many of the mosaics and paintings are still there for tourists to enjoy today.

Information from...
Wonders of the Ancient World By Justin Pollard